'Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya\r'

'KENYATTA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PURE AND ingestion SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY STUDY ON INFILTRATION AND SOIL TEXTURE chthonian BANANA AND MAIZE LAND engage SYSTEMS IN GATUNDU CATCHMENT, KIAMBU COUNTY,KENYA KAKAIRE JOEL I56EA/cc23/2012 ICEDUNA MARION I56EA/ devil hundred21/2012 MWM714: FIELD MAPPING AND lab TECHQNIUES FIELD REPORT COURSE instructor: DR. MAKOKHA GEORGE TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGES 1. 0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1 1. Signifi ro rehearsece of the nurture ………………………………………………………………………………………â₠¬Â¦. 2 1. 2 Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS ………………………………………………………………………………. 3 2. mental institution…………………………………………………â €¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦.. 3 2. 2 necessitate argona …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3 2. 3 enquiry cast……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 6 2. 4 info solicitation procedures and laboratory analysis ………………………………………………………. 6 2. 4. deformity Texture ……†¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦ 6 2. 4. 2 percolation ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ……………………………………………………………………………… 8 3. 1 primer coat percolation Measurements ……………………………………………………â €¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦â€¦. 8 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ………………………………………………………….. 13 5. 0 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15 APPENDIX ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17 appendage 1: Data sheet for percolation for banana tree tree and corn theaters ……………… ………………….. 17 ii key egress OF FIGURES aim 1: percolation Curve of banana tree charter ……………………………………………………………………. 0 framog 2: cumulative infiltration of banana tree eye socket …………………………………………………………… 10 Figure 3: infiltration edit of corn theater of operations ……………………………………………………………………… 11 Figure 4: Cumulative percolation of clavus Field……………………………………………………â⠂¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦ 11 iii inclination OF TABLES remit 1: Description of percolation sites ………………………………………………………………………….. 8 T fit 2.Summary of the malicious gossip texture report from the test sites ………………………………………….. 12 LIST OF PLATES plate 1: infiltration in Banana and stinker theatre of operations on an individual basis ………………………………………………… 7 iv v 1. 0 Introduction Water is angiotensin-converting enzyme of the approximately burning(preno minuteal) factors limiting the growth of plants in all Agricultural corpses. In this respect, proper peeing management is needful in order to solve pee ing link up problems such(prenominal)(prenominal) as irrigation and erosion control. percolation is the process by which pee arriving at the priming tabudoors enters the dry body politic.This process affects fold up overflow, priming erosion, and ground piss recharge (Gregory et al. , 2005). The stray at which it occurs is known as infiltration run which mainly depends on the characteristics of the defect. ( Saxton, 1986) reported that, the workplace acres and wet characteristics affecting infiltration rank be: the initial wet content, condition of the surface, hydraulic conductivity of the filth profile, texture, porosity, degree of swelling of crap colloids, perfect fertilizer matter, vegetative book reserveing and duration of irrigation or rain and of these, stain texture is predominant. hence the standard of wet infiltration into the skank is an authoritative indication in regard to the qualification of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of piddle for plants, improving the take over of fit outs, minimizing erosion and describing the blur permeability. cut back do and filth cover substitutes among some otherwise factors pick up as well been reported to infuluence the infiltration treasure of blot. According to (Suresh, 2008), for a given farming, the down engage pattern plays a resilient role in determining its infiltration characteristics.Different primer character practices affect infiltration says in antithetic ways. (Taylor et al, 2009), spy that intensified land use of goods and services im let outs in the first place in a change in grime complex body part rather than modify compaction. When land is put to certain uses, at that place is an accompanying change in the properties of the smirch and this warps the hydrological balance of the soil. According to (Osuji, 2010) infiltration grades in tropical forests infra scrubbing fallow were found to be mettle both(pren ominal) comp atomic number 18d to arable crop land. In addition, Majaliwa et al. 2010) explains that the change from natural forest cover to tea leaf leaf and Eucalyptus induces changes in top soil properties similar exchangeable Magnesium and Calcium, lendable Phosphorus, soil perfect matter, soil pH, and soil structure of sub soil. Further more(prenominal), go through use/ display case cover influences soil organic matter evolution which is a racy indicator of soil tonicity and it has hints on soil properties analogous aggregate stability/soil structure, infiltration and aeration ordinates, microbial exercise and nutrient release (Boye and 1Albrect, 2001). Additionally a soil’s piss remembering characteristic, is affected by soil organic matter (SOM) content and porosity, which are importantly influenced by land use type (Zhou et al. , 2008). Gatundu catchment is one of the catchments in Kenya which fill go with soil degradation due to regeneration of nat ural forest to crop land mainly banana, corn and Coffee. This has been fastened by the change magnitude nation in the catchment going approximately of the natural forest cover cleared and replaced by crop land.The result has been massive soil degradation, through passage of plant nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion, river confide degradation; build up of salinity, and legal injury to soil structure (Bekunda et al. , 2010). Therefore this study aims to determine the degree of relationship amidst infiltration scores and the land use types in ii selected sites at a set down place Banana and lemon cropping systems in Gatundu sub catchment. 1. 1 Signifi cigarettece of the study The knowledge of pee retention mental object and land use works is important for efficient soil and water management.Upon conversion of natural lands to well-be motherd plain stitchs, water retention capacity is strongly influenced (Schwartz et al. , 2000; Bormann and Klaassen, 2008; Zho u et al. , 2008). Thus, infiltration prize is an important factor in sustainable agriculture, strong watershed management, surface runoff, and retaining water and soil resources. Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most potent flow control (and water timberland treatment) storm water control practices, and should be encouraged where conditions are stamp down ( environmental science, 2005) 1. Objectives The somatic object of the study is to determine the effect of banana and Maize land use practices on water infiltration into the soil in Gatundu catchment 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives 2 1. 2. make how unalike soil types influence water flow through the soil equate Water movements through the soil at two different sites (Banana and Maize written reports) 3. To beget out how soil texture influences water infiltration into the soil 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS 2. INTRODUCTION This section covers the systems and materials use in the study which include description of the study area, observational design, knit stitch data collection procedures for soil samples and data analysis procedures; laboratory and statistical data analysis exploitation Microsoft obligation package. 2. 2 Study area Gatundu regulate is one of the districts fixed in fundamental province of Kenya at 1° 1′ 0″ South, 36° 56′ 0″ eastward; covering an area of 481. 1 km2 and borders Thika district to the East and North and Kiambu East to the South and West (Figure 5).The population absorption varies from 370 persons per Km2 in Chania and Mangu divisions to 636 persons per Km2 in Gatundu division on the 2008 population projections. Gatundu division is the most thick populated division with 636 persons per square Km. The population over the plan plosive speech sound is pass judgment to increase marginally thereby increasing demand and competition for the available resources like water and land resources (Gatundu regulate discipline plan, 2008 -2012). 3 ` Figure 5: function of Gatundu south Topography features of Gatundu district Gatundu district is located about 1520 m ASL at the final point and 2280 m ASL at the graduate(prenominal)est point.There are several permanent rivers and streams that traverse the adorn and these include Ndaruga, Thiririka, and Kahuga. All these rivers flow from the Aberdare ranges to the westernmost and towards the southeast joining River Tana thus forming part of Tana and Athi river 4 drainage system. The train is contributing(prenominal) for gravity system of irrigation (Gatundu District growing plan, 2008 -2012). Terrain Gatundu district is characterized by a rag terrain, which has had two the negative and positive impacts on the ripening of the district.The steep slopes and valleys characteristic of the most part of the district, join with intensive crop cultivation render most of these areas susceptible to soil erosion making it necessary for far mers to practice terracing which is costly. The conducive environment in the district favour the cultivation of tea and coffee however, other crops like cereals, horticultural crops such as pineapple, mangoes, avocadoes and vegetables plus bananas (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). malicious gossips Gatundu district has soils that correspond all with typical Aberdare Humic Andosols and Nitosols.These Nitosols have bang-up agricultural potential coupled with the relatively high rainfall regime in the region. Production of tea, coffee, tropical fruits and food crops such as edible corn, beans and potatoes are the most green sources of income to the households. The hilly terrain of the district has had profound effect on the soils, resulting into low and mode roll fertility levels (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Climate The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy appeases, long rains falling in march and May while short rains amid Oc tober and November.The amount received varies with altitude ranging from 800 mm to 2000 mm with the highest rainfall being see in the tea zones. The mean temperature is 200 C with coldest months being June, July and August. The hottest months are February, establish and April. Temperatures produce from 80C minimum to ccc C maximum during the year. (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012) 5 2. 3 Research design A completely randomized block design was used for the study. Two treatments were considered (Banana and Maize land uses) and the blocking was landscape position. For Each land use type, only one try was carried out because of while. . 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis 2. 4. 1 Soil Texture Five (5) soil samples from both Banana and Maize land uses at different landscape positions were collected. The sampling was through with(p) at depth of 0 -15 cm and were collected using a 50 mm diameter auger using a Random sampling proficiency as explained by Haghighi et al. (2010) . The 0-15cm depth was considered because it’s the major agricultural layer and stand zone for most of the crops. The five soil samples from each land use were well mixed to obtain composite soil samples which were taken to Makerere University Laboratory for Analysis.Soil texture was heady using the hydrometer method exposit by Bouyoucos (1962) and results presented in percentages of mineral proportions. The samples were passed through an electric shaker for 30 transactions and then the sample was treated with sodium hexametaphosphate to complex Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind stiff and clog corpuscles into aggregates. The density of the soil suspension was determined with a hydrometer which was calibrated to read in grams of solids per lambert after the gritstone sinktled out and again after the clog up settled. corrections were made for the density and temperature of the dispersing solutions.The percentages of mineral fra ctions were careful as below; Percent mud: % remains = corrected hydrometer construe at 6 hrs, 52 min. x century/ wt. of sample Percent silt: % silt = corrected hydrometer variation at 40 sec. x 100/ wt. of sample †% clay Percent sand: 6 % sand = 100% †% silt †% clay Results were reported as percentages of the mineral fraction, % sand, % silt, and % clay. Soil texture was found on the USDA textural triangle. 2. 4. 2 Infiltration The infiltration rate was determined using double-ring infiltrometer as described by American companionship for Testing and Materials (1994).It consists of two concentric alloy rings. The rings were driven into the ground and change with water. The outer ring helped to prevent divergent flow. The drop-in water level or record book in the cozy ring was used to calculate the infiltration rate. Clock cartridge clip was recorded when the test began and noted the water level on the ruler at different conviction intervals as seen in v ermiform appendix 1, recorded the drop in water level in the inner ring on the ruler and unploughed adding water to bring the level spinal column to approximately the original level.The tests were conducted for a finale of one to two hours, until the infiltration rate became constant. The infiltration rate was calculated from the rate of fall of the water level in the inner ring as seen in Appendix 1 in the 10th minutes in both the banana scene of action and maize knit stitchs. The data was canvas by drawing graphs of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration. In both cases, curves were obtained. Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field individually 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3. Soil Infiltration Measurements Soil infiltration measurements were made at 2 sites in Gatundu sub catchment (Plate 1 above). The two sites have the same soil characteristics, thereof they have been classified by the different land uses and land scape positions coupled by other field o bservations. Sites were selected based on land use, proximity to water source, site accessibility, and soil type. Table 1: Description of infiltration sites Site spatial relation Banana Site Observed and use and field observations Site with Banana plantations, Has some mounds, some trees adjacent to the field, it’s on a higher bringing up Maize Site Site with Maize, The site is jam to a trench used for paltry water, Its close to the road , It’s on a overturn rhytidectomy Figure 1(Banana land use) and Figure 3(Maize land use) shows that the water infilt place at a very high rate at the beginning with 1800 mm/hr and 720mm/hr respectively; because the hydraulic gradient is high and then keeps declining with time until it bring abouts fairly steady after the soils become saturated, which is termed as canonic infiltration rate.This is also emphasized by Horton (1940) where he asserts that infiltration becomes constant with time as the soil column tallyes fully satu rated conditions which occurred at 40th and 49th minute time intervals in Banana and Maize Land use Systems as seen in addition 1. Rubin and Steinhardt (1963) also showed that the final infiltration rate reached under these conditions is equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil. 8 The steady state in Maize was attained earlier than in banana land use corresponding to 204mm/hr and 450mm/hr respectively.This can be associated to soil disturbances during ploughing and land preparation season after season for annual crops like maize compared to banana field (Perennial) which have less soil disturbances. The scenario under maize land use may use up to soil compaction as a result of continuous cultivation. This is emphasized by Pitt et al. , 2002 and 2008; Pitt et al. , (1999b) who found substantial reductions in infiltration judge due to soil compaction. The implication is that beyond the steady point (saturation point), if more water is applied to the soil, i t results into surface water runoff.Infiltration depends upon physical and hydraulic properties of the soil moisture content, previous wetting history, structural changes in the layers and air entrapment. The basic infiltration rate of maize land use is rase than that of Banana land use system as seen in Appendix 1; this can be associated to a digit of factors although not conclusive for the attained results; 1. The initial moisture content; the study was carried out in a rainy season, because for saturated soils, the infiltration falls to the aturated hydraulic conductivity almost instantaneously. 2. Considering the type of land use in each of the sites; Soils under Perennials (Banana Land use) are pillow sliped to less interferences in terms of land preparations compared to land under annuals (Maize Land use) which correlates with the obtained results of 450mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively 3. The surrounding of the site; the Maize field is on a lower elevation and near a trenc h which collects water, and so it’s possible that the soils could easily reach saturation 9 Infiltration rate mm/hr 000 1800 1600 1 cd 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Infiltration rate,mm/hr infiltration rate mm/hr Time(minutes) Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field Cummulative infiltration cummulative infiltration,mm 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 one hundred fifty 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field In Banana land use, Infiltration was recorded at time intervals of 1, 5 and 10 minutes and in Maize land use it was at 3, 6 and 10 minutes time intervals (Appendix 1) 10Infiltration rate/hr 800 Infiltration rate mm/hr 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Infiltration rate/hr Time,hrs Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field Cummulative infiltration Cummulative infiltration,mm 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cummulative infiltration Time, hrs Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 Table 2 below compares the infiltration pass judgment of two sites, classified according to the texture of the soil profiles in Banana and Maize land use systems.In each set of measurements, the infiltration rate of the Banana field belong to the sandy clay loam was much higher than Maize field belonging to clay loam because of the variation in the physical properties of the two textural classes. In the banana field, basic infiltration rate was attained at 450mm/hr which is higher than that of maize field, 204mm/hr and this explains the relationship between soil texture, structure and infiltration which was obtained in our results where the Banana field with sandy clay loams having larger pores allowed in more water to infiltrate compared to clay loam with relatively smaller pores.From our results, The banana field reached saturation earlier (40th minute) than the Maize field (49th minute) which deviates from the assumption th at the field at lower elevation reaches saturation earlier than the other on the higher elevation, and this case the maize field was on a lower elevation. As it is not possible to vary soil texture independently of other characteristics it is not inferred that the infiltration rates are caused by texture.Table 2 Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites try out Percentage % Sand Banana Field Maize Field 50 40 Silt 26 26 stiff 24 34 Sand clay loam Clay loam Textural Class 12 4. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Generally from the findings, the two sites registered high basic infiltration rates with banana and maize land use having 405mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively. The two sites as well reached saturation easily because of the amount of water that was held within the soil because of the rainy season.Several factors influenced the test; measuring rapidly ever-changing water levels was difficult especially for one minute time intervals and and then subject to inaccuracy and the local site features, challenges in elevation and the soils being too soft which unbroken altering the position of the ruler and variable the depth thus may have affected individual test results. Therefore the study required more data collection and time to be able to sample many sites at different time intervals. For this study, tests were conducted during a rainy period in December, 2012, where the water table was anticipate to be above most soil layers.However, Infiltration is a key parameter in Watershed management therefore Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most useful flow control (and water quality treatment) , and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate ( environmental science, 2005). Additionally infiltration separates water into two major components surface runoff and underwater recharge, therefore assessment and Evaluation of runoff risk has assumed an increased vastness because of concerns about associ ated pollution hazards in which pollutants are likely to be transferred from soil to rivers and lakes.The accelerate of irrigation of fields is based on infiltration tests and data; in surface irrigation, infiltration changes dramatically throughout the irrigation season. The water movements alter the surface structure and geometry which in turn affect infiltration rates; therefore accurate determination of infiltration rates is essential for reliable prediction of surface runoff. As environmental impact assessments are concerned with long-term effects, it is essential that the 13 infiltration data on which they are based should be reasonably stable. For proviso purposes it is essential to know the stability of infiltration data. 4 5. 0 REFERENCES American ships company for Testing and Materials, 1994, Standard test method for infiltration rate of soils in field using double-ring infiltrometer: ASTM Publication D-3385-94, 7 p. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1962. gravimeter method improved fo r making particle size analysis of soils. Agron. J. 54:464-465. Ecology (2005) Stormwater concern Manual for Western capital letter; Olympia, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology Water shade Program. Publication numbers game 05-10-029 through 05-10-033. http://www. ecy. wa. gov/pubs/0510029. pdf Gregory, J. H. , Dukes, M. D. , Miller, G. L. , and Jones P.H. (2005) Analysis of double-ring infiltration techniques and development of a simple automatic water delivery system. Applied Turfgrass Science. Haghighi. F. , & Gorjiz, M. & Shorafa M. (2010). Effects of Land Use Change on grand Soil Properties. Land Degrad. Develop. 21, 496â€502. Horton, R. E. , 1940, An approach towards a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity: Soils Science cabaret of America Proceedings, v. 5, p. 399-417. Osuji, G. E,Okon M. A; Chukwuma and Nwaire (2010): Infiltration characteristics of soils under selected landuse practices in Oweri, southerly Nigeria.World journal of Agricu ltural Sciences 6(3): 322 †326 Pitt, R. ; J. Lantrip; R. Harrison; C. Henry, and D. Hue (1999b) Infiltration through Disturbed urban Soils and Compost-Amended Soil Effects on Runoff Quality and Quantity; EPA 600-R-00-016. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. topic Risk Management Research Laboratory. site of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH: 231 pp. Pitt, R; Chen, S. -E; Clark, S. E (2002) Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater master Designs; Proc. , 9th Int. Conf. on Urban Drainage (9ICUD).Portland, Oregon. Pitt, R; Chen, S-E; Clark, S; Swenson, J. , and Ong, C. K (2008) Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration; J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg. , 134(5), 652-658. Rubin, J. , and Steinhardt, R. , 1963, Soils water relations during rain infiltration; bankrupt Iâ€Theory: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 27, p. 246-251 Saxton, K. E. , W. L. Rawls, J. S. Rosenberger and R. I Papendick, 1986. Estima ting generalized soil water characteristics from texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. , 50: 1031-1036 15 Schwartz, R. C. , Unger, P. W. Evett S. R. , 2000. â€Å"Land use effects on soil hydraulicproperties. ” Suresh, D. (2008). Land and Water Management Principles: New Delhi, Shansi Publishers Taylor, M. , M. Mulholland and D. Thornburrow,2009. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils Under forestry and husbandry in the Upper Waikato Catchment. Report: TR/18 http:// www. ew. govt. nz/publications/ Technical-Reports/ TR-200918/ Zhou, X. , Lin, H. S. , White, E. A. , 2008. â€Å"Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. ” Catena. 73, 180-188. 16APPENDIX Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields Banana Field Time Reading quantify on difference, Cumulative min time, min Infiltration Water Level, Infiltration, Infiltratio rate cm cm n, mm mm/min Infiltration rate mm/hr Cumulative infiltr ation, mm 12:32 12:33 12:34 12:35 12:36 12:37 12:42 12:47 12:52 12:57 13:02 13:07 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 12. 0 13. 5 13. 8 14. 0 14. 3 9. 4 12. 8 11. 0 12. 0 12. 7 9. 8 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 17. 0 17. 3 17. 3 17. 5 3. 0 1. 5 1. 2 1. 0 0. 7 5. 6 2. 2 4. 0 5. 0 4. 6 7. 5 17 30 15 12 10 7 56 22 40 50 46 75\r\n'